Music is a universal language and part of our everyday life. Musical instrument is a device for producing a musical sound and it is almost universal components of human culture. It has been used from the earliest times for different purposes such as dances, rituals, work, medicine, and entertainment. The earliest instruments were made or from natural objects such as bones, shells, wood, skin etc. These instruments gradually evolved into more complex forms. (Musical instrument – Classification of instruments, 2020), (Shurkin, 2012)

Here are some examples of early instruments:

Shawm

The shawm first appeared in the 13^th century and it became the most important instrument by the end of the Middle Ages. The instrument used in dance bands, ensembles, and court ceremonies.

The shawm`s body made from a single piece which ended in a flared bell shape. It is a loud, double-reed wind instrument which is the ancestor of the oboe. Like the oboe, it is conically bored only its bore, bell and finger holes are wider, and it has a wooden disk to support the lips. It produces sound by the vibration of a column air. Unfortunately, the sahwm created such a loud noise, that it was impossible to use it indoors so the oboe was made to replace it.

Musicians in different places used different techniques and styles for example the circular breathing technique which allowed the musician to play continuously on the instrument without any pauses. The early use of shawm was in court and civic music. From the 15^th century until the beginning of the 19^th century every British town had a band called Waiters. They were trained musicians who were originally member of the night watchmen and wakemen in places such as castles, camps, towns etc. (Duffin, 2020)

The British musician and early music historian David Munrow bring alive the Medieval court life with his piece called Saltarello. The music is written in the 14^th century and the shawm which is the solo instrument accompanied by tambourine, timpani, and trumpet. The title Saltarello is a term use to a Medieval and Renaissance court dance as well as folk dance of present-day Rome. The music well reflects this term as during listening I can imagine a castle where people gathered for dinner and after the delicious food they enjoy of good music and dance. (Saltarello | dance, 2020)

Viol

The Viol, also called viola da gamba is a bowed, stringed instrument. It mostly used in chamber music in the 16^th until the 18^th century. The viol has the same tuning as the Renaissance lute, which is six strings (instead of four) and the fingerboard which is fitted with frets (tied strands of gut). The sound holes are traditionally shaped like the letter “C” instead of “f” and the bow is held underhanded with the palm facing upwards. Viol characterized by sloping shoulders, deep ribs, thin flat backs, and a vertical playing position. The bottom of the instrument was sitting on the knee or held between the legs. The breadth of the bridge was arched which gave the bow separate access to each string. This property with the position of the bow hand (palm uppermost) encouraged the musicians to smooth playing style. The viol made in three sizes such as treble, tenor and bass, with the bottom string tuned to d, G (or A) and D. Later there were two other size made, such as violone and the double bass viol which often turned an octave below the bass. The vibration of the strings produces sound. A bowed string vibrates and moves in a circular motion that produces the fundamental tone, while the vibration produces overtones like a rippling wave. This complex movement of the string is transmitted to the body by the bridge. (Viol (Renaissance) – Early Music Instrument Database, 2020) (Viol | musical instrument, 2020)

Viol music was popular in Europe and especially in England. For example, Henry VIII (ca. 1540) engaged a complete consort of Italian players. In France, the bass viol was more popular as a solo instrument. In Germany, the viol was used both solo and chamber music. Composers incorporated the instrument in their pieces for example Heinrich Schultz in his sacred music, Buxtehude in his cantatas and sonatas, JS Bach used the viol as an obligato instrument in his sacred works, Telemann, and C.P.E. Bach in their chamber music.  At the second half of the 16^th century the viol acquired a significant repertory for ensemble, solo bass, lyra viol and small bass viol (viola bastarda). One of the significant players was Martin Marais (1656-1728). He was not only a composer but a celebrated virtuoso of the viola da gamba. Also Johann Schenck (1660-1712, Dutch) and C.F. Abel (1723-1787, German) were both great viol players. (About the Viol, 2020)

Crumhorn

The name refers to the letter “J” shape and comes from an old German word meaning “curved horn”. Similarly to the modern oboe or bassoon, the crumhorn or Krummhorn is a double reed wind instrument but the difference is that the reed is not held between the lips. It encased in a wooden capsule at the top of the instrument. It`s fingering system is similar than the recorder. The crumhorn works like the bagpipe by using the wind pressure in the chamber around the reed to start it vibrating. Because the reed is not controlled directly, the instrument has a limited range (just over an octave) and also the sound is softer due to the cylindrical bore. The tone is reedy and nasal. The instrument was made in a range of sizes and pitches for example great bass or sopranino. It was really difficult to play well.

Crumhorns were flourished between the 15^th until the 17^th century. It was more popular in Europe such as Germany, Italy, France and England. The first record of the instrument came from the 15^th century court of Albrecht Achilles of Ansbach (reigned 1440–1486) in Germany and it called Krummpfeyffen which means curved pipes. Also the first image is from an Italian painter Lorenzo Costa who illustrated crumhorn on his painting called The triumph of death (1488-90). (Crumhorn | musical instrument, 2020)

Crumhorns were played for religious, court entertainments, royal and municipal occasions. There are no examples of any musician either owing or playing a crumhorn in any country who was not either a professional court or municipal musician or a member of the aristocracy. For example musicians who were employed by the town council to perform at official occasions, weddings, baptisms, royal visits etc. In England they called them waits, in Germany stadtpfeifers and in Italy piffari. They had exclusive right to provide official music within the boundaries of the town or city. (Crumhorn (Renaissance) – Early Music Instrument Database, 2020)

Sackbut

The word sackbut is from the old French verbs sacquer and bouter which describe the pulling and pushing arm motion of the player. It is an early trombone, invented in the 15^th century probably in Burgundy. It has thicker walls than the modern trombone which gives a softer tone. It`s bell also narrower. It is a low-pitched wind instrument sounded by lip vibration against a cup mouthpiece. It has an extendable slide that can increase the length of the instrument`s tubing. Sacbuts were made in tenor, alto and bass sizes.

Its earliest use was in an ensemble where it was a regular member of the shawm band. It was also used to accompany voice and as a solo instrument. Despite the property of the instrument (wide range of dynamics or dramatic compass) and its ability to be played the sackbut did not become a regular member of the orchestra until the early 19^th century.

Dulcimer

The name dulcimer comes from the Latin and Greek words dulce and melos which means sweet tune. Dulcimer is a late medieval stringed instrument and it is similar looking than the psaltery. The difference is that the strings of the dulcimer were struck with little hammers rather than being plucked. The earliest evidence of the dulcimer can be found on a 12th century ivory book-cover made in Byzantium. It contains a typical trapiziform instrument with lateral strings. No other dulcimer representation is found until the middle of the 1400’s, when the instrument was introduced to western Europe. After the introduction dulcimers were found in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, Flanders, northern France, and England.

Dulcimers often had one or two bridges over which the strings crossed providing the opportunity for more pitches because the performer could strike a sound on each side of the bridge. In the 15th century images we can see that dulcimers had single courses of six to nine strings and were played on the lap or on a table. They used hammers which held between the index and middle fingers. A century later, the multiple bridges were more common with between eight and twelve double courses. Sometimes they used a neck strap which helped for portability. The soundboards of the instrument were commonly decorated. (Dulcimer | Musica Antiqua, 2020)

European dulcimers are hackbrett in the Alpine, the cimbalom in Hungary, the tambal in Romania, santouri in Greek, sanṭūr in Persia and Yanggin in China. These instruments have two or more strings for each note which stretched across a flat, usually trapezoidal sound box. They pass over one and under the other of two long bridges, sloping alternately to right and left to facilitate rapid playing with the light beaters.

The pianoforte is also a dulcimer where the keyboard mechanism operates the beaters. One of its immediate predecessors was the pantaleon, which is a 5-foot (1.5-metre) or longer dulcimer from the early 18th century.

The dulcimer from the United States (Appalache) is called zither which is a narrow folk instrument with three to five metal strings running over a fretted fingerboard, which is set centrally along the dulcimer’s entire length. The player’s right-hand strums with a small stick or quill, and the left hand stops one or more strings to provide the melody.

Because the dulcimer range it can be used for many different types of music. At the beginning the instrument used in folk music and in concerts. Later it appeared in jazz, blues, ragtime, Cajun, gospel and even rock and roll. (Dulcimer | musical instrument, 2020)

Clavichord

The name clavichord comes from the Latin word clavis which means key and the Greek word chorda which means string. It was invented in the early 14^th century. One of the earliest references to the instrument can be found in England in an expense record of Elizabeth of York, Queen of Henry VII, dated in August 1502.

The clavichord is a European stringed rectangular keyboard instrument that was used from the late Middle Ages through the Renaissance, Baroque and Classical eras. It mostly used as a practice instrument and for composition as it was easy to keep in tune, but it was not loud enough for larger performances. The instrument produces sound by striking brass or iron strings with small metal blades called tangents. Vibrations are transmitted through the bridge to the soundboard. The clavichord was one of the piano`s ancestry. (Clavichord (Renaissance) – Early Music Instrument Database, 2020)

Clavichords can be fretted or unfretted. In fretted instruments each string could produce three or four different pitches. In unfretted ones each note has its own pair of strings. Clavichords were usually fretted until the early 18^th century, after that they were frequently unfretted. In the early 15^th century the range of the instrument was around four octaves, but in the 18^th century it increased to five octaves or more. Because the clavichord was primarily used to learn, to practice and to compose on there were no music written specifically for this instrument before the mid-18^th century. After there were a large number of music composed in Germany where the clavichord was still common. At first clavichord was used of home concerts. At home it was ideal instrument for solo keyboard music and instrumental accompaniment. Today clavichords are played by musicians who enthusiast by Renaissance, Baroque and Classical music. The firs leading musicians who exposed clavichord were Christopher Hogwood (English conductor, harpsichordist, writer, and musicologist) and Thurston Dart (English musicologist, conductor, and keyboard player). The instrument also used in other genres of music in the form of clavinet which is an electric clavichord that uses a magnetic pickup to produce a signal for amplification. There are several musicians used this instrument in their work for example Stevie Wonder Higher Ground or Superstition, Guy Sigswoth with Bjork, in All Is Full of Love, Tori Amos in Little Amsterdam, Oscar Peterson in Porgy And Bess, Keith Jarreth in his album called Book of Ways where he plays a series of clavichord improvisations, Paul McCartney (Beatles) in For No One and Rick Wakeman in The Battle. (What is a… Clavichord? | Definition and History | Classical-Music.com, 2016) (Durfee, 2020)

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